YES Professional Development Program; CIMS I.C.E. Written Hazard Communication Program. How to Program in C++. An int value may be written in decimal. C++ evolved from C, which in turn evolved from B, written by Ken Thompson in 1970 as a variant of BCPL. The following code is the premise for which the tutorial is written on. How to Write a Simple C++ Program. SEC Awards to Whistleblowers have Surpassed $100 Million. Microsoft C# Projects for the Classroom Written by Alfred C Thompson II Distributed by Mainfunction.com. 2011 Title 5 Administrative Personnel Parts 700 to 1199. Under the provisions of 44 U.S.C. Bonnie Fritts was Chief Editor. The Code of Federal Regulations publication program is under the direction of. Two framework papers that develop the concepts outlined in this article, “Value in Health Care” and “Measuring Health Outcomes,” are available as Supplementary Appendixes. In any field, improving performance. The Future Financial Status of the Social Security Program. The concepts of solvency, sustainability, and budget impact are common in discussions of Social Security, but are not well understood. Currently, the Social Security Board of Trustees projects program cost to rise by 2. This increase in cost results from population aging, not because we are living longer, but because birth rates dropped from three to two children per woman. Importantly, this shortfall is basically stable after 2. Social Security program on a sustainable basis for the foreseeable future. Finally, as Treasury debt securities (trust fund assets) are redeemed in the future, they will just be replaced with public debt. If trust fund assets are exhausted without reform, benefits will necessarily be lowered with no effect on budget deficits. The author is the Chief Actuary of the Social Security Administration. Acknowledgments: This article is possible only as a result of the consistent efforts of the Social Security Board of Trustees and their staffs in producing a highly professional and informative report each year. Particular appreciation is extended to Karen Glenn of the Office of the Chief Actuary for her invaluable review and editing of the article. In addition, Michael Leonesio, David Weaver, and Jason Fichtner of the Office of Retirement and Disability Policy provided critical and constructive comments on the draft that contributed substantially to the end product. The findings and conclusions presented in the Bulletin are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Social Security Administration. Introduction. Selected Abbreviations. DIDisability Insurance. GDPgross domestic product. HIHospital Insurance. NRAnormal retirement age. OASDIOld- Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance. OASIOld- Age and Survivors Insurance. PAYGOpay as you go. As a result of changes to Social Security enacted in 1. At the point where the reserves are used up, continuing taxes are expected to be enough to pay 7. Thus, the Congress will need to make changes to the scheduled benefits and revenue sources for the program in the future. The Social Security Board of Trustees project that changes equivalent to an immediate reduction in benefits of about 1. Since the inception of the Social Security program in 1. Social Security provides a basic level of monthly income to workers and their families after the workers have reached old age, become disabled, or died. The program now provides benefits to over 5. Further modifications of the program are a certainty as the Congress continues to evolve and shape this program, reflecting the desires of each new generation. This article describes the financial status of the Social Security program, including an analysis of the concepts of solvency and sustainability and the relationship of Social Security to the overall federal unified budget. The future is uncertain in many respects, and based on new information, projections of the financial status of the Social Security program vary somewhat over time. What is virtually certain is that the benefits that almost all Americans become entitled to and most depend on will be continued into the future with modifications deemed appropriate by their elected representatives in the Congress. Annual Reports by the Trustees. Each year, starting in 1. Social Security Board of Trustees has presented a required report on the financial status of the program to the Congress. The board has six members, including the Secretary of the Treasury as the managing trustee, the Secretary of Labor, the Secretary of Health and Human Services, and the Commissioner of Social Security, plus two public trustees appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate. The Social Security Act requires that the annual report include (1) the financial operations of the trust funds in the most recent past year, (2) the expected financial operations of the trust funds over the next 5 years, and (3) an analysis of the actuarial status of the program. The recent financial operations and the operations projected for the next few years are a finger on the pulse of the program. The actuarial status of the program is intended to provide an early warning of any potential longer- term financial issues or challenges that will be facing the program. The longer- term analysis of the actuarial status of the Social Security trust funds provides the Congress with an essential early warning of future challenges and provides the time to make desired changes in a careful and thoughtful manner. Although legislative changes may sometimes appear to be decided at the last minute before a crisis, the long advance warning of financial challenges provided by the trustees in the annual reports has always promoted broad consideration of options for change that allow any eventual modification of the law to be based on sound analysis and consideration of a comprehensive view of possible changes and their effects. Since the last major amendments to the Social Security program were enacted in 1. The 1. 98. 3 Trustees Report indicated that the Social Security program was put into . This meant that under the intermediate assumptions used in that report, representing the trustees' best estimate of future experience at that time, program financing was expected to be sufficient to pay scheduled benefits in full through 2. However, that report also indicated that well before 2. The report also showed that these reserves would be approaching exhaustion in 2. Thus, even at the enactment of the 1. Amendments to the Social Security Act, it was known that further changes would be needed. The continuing projections in the annual reports since 1. Solvency of the Social Security Program. When individuals look at the financial status of the Social Security program, they often ask, . Solvency for the Social Security program is defined as the ability of the trust funds at any point in time to pay the full scheduled benefits in the law on a timely basis. The two Social Security trust funds, those for Old- Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) benefits and for Disability Insurance (DI) benefits, are special. Along with the Hospital Insurance (HI) Trust Fund of the Medicare program, the OASI and DI Trust Funds have the important feature that benefits can only be paid to the extent that the trust funds actually have assets to draw on to pay the benefits. Unlike the rest of federal government operations, these three trust fund programs do not have the ability to borrow in order to continue paying benefits when the dedicated taxes and trust fund reserves are not sufficient. Because the ability of these programs to pay benefits is directly dependent on the availability of assets in their respective trust funds, the existence of assets over time in the future is the critical indicator of solvency. Taken from the 2. Trustees Report, Chart 1 shows that under the trustees' intermediate assumptions (alternative II), the combined assets of the OASI and DI Trust Funds will soon peak at over 3. The relatively more optimistic assumptions of the low- cost alternative I show solvency for the program throughout the 7. III assumptions show trust fund exhaustion even sooner than 2. These alternative sets of assumptions are just one of several ways the trustees illustrate the uncertainty of long- range projections for the future. Chart 1. Combined OASI and DI Trust Fund assets as a percentage of program cost, 1. SOURCE: 2. 00. 9 Social Security Trustees Report, Figure II. D6 and Table IV. B3. NOTES: Alternative I = low- cost assumptions; alternative II = intermediate assumptions; alternative III = high- cost assumptions. Exhaustion of trust fund assets is projected to occur under the intermediate assumptions because program cost will begin to exceed the tax revenues dedicated to the trust funds in the future, requiring increasing amounts of net redemptions from the trust funds. The assumptions adopted for the 2. Trustees Report resulted in projected . It is only when the reserves in the trust funds are exhausted that timely payment of full scheduled benefits becomes an issue. As shown in the chart, at the time of projected trust fund exhaustion in 2. This precipitous drop in the level of benefits that would be payable in the absence of any legislative action between now and 2. Trustees Report. Historically, the OASI and DI Trust Funds have reached times where dedicated tax revenue fell short of the cost of providing benefits and also times where the trust funds have reached the brink of exhaustion of assets. For years 1. 97. 3 through 1. OASI and DI Trust Funds were operating with a negative cash flow that was depleting the trust fund reserves toward exhaustion (see Chart 3). The Social Security Amendments of 1. The 1. 97. 7 amendments included a fundamental change in the indexation of benefits from one generation to the next. The 1. 98. 3 amendments included increases in the normal retirement age (NRA) from 6. Social Security benefits with revenue credited to the trust funds. Chart 3. OASDI net cash flows as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP), 1. SOURCE: Social Security Administration, Office of the Chief Actuary. However, the occurrence of a negative cash flow, when tax revenue alone is insufficient to pay full scheduled benefits, does not necessarily mean that the trust funds are moving toward exhaustion. In fact, in a perfectly pay- as- you- go (PAYGO) financing approach, with the assets in the trust fund maintained consistently at the level of a . This would occur when the interest rate on the trust fund assets is greater than the rate of growth in program cost. In this case, interest on the trust fund assets would be more than enough to grow the assets as fast as program cost, leaving some of the interest available to augment current tax revenue to meet current cost. Under the trustees' current intermediate assumptions, the long- term average real interest rate is assumed at 2. Computer program - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. A computer program is a collection of instructions. A computer requires programs to function, and typically executes the program's instructions in a central processing unit. From the program in its human- readable form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code. Alternatively, a computer program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter. A part of a computer program that performs a well- defined task is known as an algorithm. A collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as application software or system software. History. In 1. 80. Joseph- Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns, including flowers and leaves, could be weaved and repeated by arranging the cards. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled. The device would have had a . It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards. The memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first written computer program. The machine can move the tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm. The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state. The Z3 contained 2,4. The circuits provided a binary, floating- point, nine- instruction computer. Programming the Z3 was through a specially designed keyboard and punched tape. The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (Fall 1. Turing complete, general- purpose computer that used 1. At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together. Programming the ENIAC took up to two months. Function tables were connected to function panels using heavy black cables. Each function table had 7. Programming the ENIAC also involved setting some of the 3,0. Debugging a program took a week. Different sets of accumulators could simultaneously work on different algorithms. It used punched card machines for input and output, and it was controlled with a clock signal. It ran for eight years, calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns. The Manchester Small- Scale Experimental Machine (June 1. Only three bits of memory were available to store each instruction, so it was limited to eight instructions. Later computers. The computer program was written on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration, an execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also were manually input via paper tape or punched cards. After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches and the execute button pressed. The hardware featured circuits to ease the compile phase. The Model 3. 0 was the smallest and least expensive. Customers could upgrade and retain the same application software. With operating system support, multiple programs could be in memory at once. When one was waiting for input/output, another could compute. Each model also could emulate other computers. Customers could upgrade to the System/3. IBM 7. 09. 4 or IBM 1. Editing source code involves testing, analyzing, refining, and sometimes coordinating with other programmers on a jointly developed program. A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer programmer, software developer, and sometimes coder. The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is usually referred to as software development. The term software engineering is becoming popular as the process is seen as an engineering discipline. Programming languages. Two of the main paradigms are imperative and declarative. Imperative languages. Declarative programs omit the control flow and are considered sets of instructions. Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind functional languages (like Haskell) is to not allow side effects, which makes it easier to reason about programs like mathematical functions. Then each subgoal is defined by further providing a list of its subgoals, etc. If a path of subgoals fails to find a solution, then that subgoal is backtracked and another path is systematically attempted. Compilation and interpretation. Source code may be converted into an executable image by a compiler or executed immediately with the aid of an interpreter. Compilers are used to translate source code from a programming language into either object code or machine code. Compiled computer programs are commonly referred to as executables, binary images, or simply as binaries . The interpreter decodes each statement and performs its behavior. One advantage of interpreters is that they have the ability to generate an interactive session. The programmer is presented with a prompt, and individual lines of code are typed in and performed immediately. The main disadvantage of interpreters is computer programs run slower than when compiled. Interpreting code is slower because the interpreter must decode each statement and then perform it. However, software development may be faster using an interpreter because testing is immediate when the compiling step is omitted. Another disadvantage of interpreters is an interpreter must be present on the executing computer. By contrast, compiled computer programs need no compiler present during execution. Just in time compilers pre- compile computer programs ahead of time and interpret them later. For example, Java computer programs are pre- compiled into a file containing bytecode. Bytecode is then executed by an interpreter called a virtual machine. Either compiled or interpreted programs might be executed in a batch process without human interaction. Batch programming languages are called scripting languages. One common scripting language is Unix shell, and its executing environment is called the command- line interface. No properties of a programming language require it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted. The categorization usually reflects the most popular method of language execution. For example, BASIC is thought of as an interpreted language and C a compiled language, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters. Storage and execution. Upon such a request, the program is loaded into random- access memory, by a computer program called an operating system, where it can be accessed directly by the central processor. The central processor then executes (. A program in execution is called a process. Operating systems may run multiple programs through process scheduling . Multithreading processors are optimized to execute multiple threads efficiently. Self- modifying programs. However, in some cases, this distinction is blurred when a computer program modifies itself. The modified computer program is subsequently executed as part of the same program. Self- modifying code is possible for programs written in machine code, assembly language, Lisp, C, COBOL, PL/1, and Prolog. Functional categories. The main functional categories are application software and system software. System software includes the operating system which couples computer hardware with application software. Application software designed for end users have a user interface. Application software not designed for the end user includes middleware, which couples one application with another. Application software also includes utility programs. The distinction between system software and application software is under debate. Application software. It is a clipping of the word . They have been designed for many platforms, but the word was first used for smaller mobile apps. Desktop apps are traditional computer programs that run on desktop computers. Mobile apps run on mobile devices. Web apps run inside a web browser. Both mobile and desktop apps may be downloaded from the developers' website or purchased from app stores such as Windows Store, Apple App Store, Mac App Store, Google Play or Intel App. Up. An application suite consists of multiple applications bundled together. Examples include Microsoft Office, Libre. Office and i. Work. They bundle a word processor, spreadsheet, and other applications. Enterprise applications bundle accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications. Examples include enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software. Enterprise infrastructure software supports the enterprise's software systems. Examples include databases, email servers, and network servers. Information worker software are designed for workers at the departmental level. Examples include time management, resource management, analytical, collaborative and documentation tools. Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog clients, personal information system, and individual media editors may aid in multiple information worker tasks. Media development software generates print and electronic media for others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. These produce graphics, publications, animations, and videos. Product engineering software is used to help develop large machines and other application software. Examples includes computer- aided design (CAD), computer- aided engineering (CAE), and integrated development environments. Entertainment Software can refer to video games, movie recorders and players, and music recorders and players. Utility programs. If less fortunate, a memory printout was made for further study. The boot process is to identify and initialize all aspects of the system, from processor registers to device controllers to memory contents.
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